Manasa Mohan A and Sabu Thomas*

School of Energy Materials, Mahatma Gandhi University, Priyadarshani Hills, Kerala, India

*Corresponding Author: Sabu Thomas, Professor, School of Energy Materials, Mahatma Gandhi University, Priyadarshani Hills, Kerala, India.

Received: July 25, 2022; Published: November 17, 2022

Abstract

This article investigates the relation between hormonal changes and how it leads to breast cancer. Breast cancer is continuing to be one most of the most leading cause for the death of women especially worldwide. We referred many journals and articles that are recently published to get a clear picture of the indirect relation of hormonal changes and breast cancer. The hormonal changes lead to polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS), which is the main reason for infertility in the present generation. PCOS is considered to be a lifestyle disease, that can cause many hazardous health condition. This article clearly explains how obesity and PCOS are related and how it leads to breast cancer. The treatment strategies that are available now a days to cure breast cancers are also discussed. The drawbacks of the treatments and drugs are merely mentioned in the last section.

Keywords: Hormones; PCOS; Obesity; Breast Cancer; Hormone Receptors

References

1. Chen Y., et al. “A supramolecular co-delivery strategy for combined breast cancer treatment and metastasis prevention”. Chinese Chemical Letters5 (2019): 1153-1158.
2. Wu M., et al. “Targeting ETS1 with RNAi-based supramolecular nanoassemblies for multidrug-resistant breast cancer therapy”. Journal of Controlled Release 253 (2017): 110-121.
3. Kohler BA., et al. “Annual Report to the Nation on the Status of Cancer, 1975-2011, featuring incidence of breast cancer subtypes by race/ethnicity, poverty, and state”. Journal of the National Cancer Institute6 (2015).
4. Joe B N. “Clinical features, diagnosis, and staging of newly diagnosed breast cancer. In: UpToDate”. Burstein HJ, Vora SR (eds.). Waltham, MA: UpToDate, (2022).
5. Moosavi L., et al. “A Synchronous Diagnosis of MetastaticMale Breast Cancer and Prostate Cancer”. Journal of Investigative Medicine High Impact Case Reports 7 (2019).
6. Tchernof A., et al. “Obesity and metabolic complications: contribution of dehydroepiandrosterone and other steroid hormones”. Journal of Endocrinology 150 (1996): 155-164.
7. Segall-Gutierrez P., et al. “Effect of subcutaneous depot-medroxyprogesterone acetate (DMPA-SC) on serum androgen markers in normal-weight, obese, and extremely obese women”. Contraception 86 (2012): 739-745.
8. Elks CE., et al. “Age at menarche and type 2 diabetes risk: the EPIC-InterAct study. Diabetes Care” InterAct C. 36. (2013): 3526-3534.
9. Prentice P and Viner RM. “Pubertal timing and adult obesity and cardiometabolic risk in women and men: a systematic review and meta-analysis”. International Journal of Obesity (Lond) 37 (2013): 1036-1043.
10. Canoy D., et al. “Million Women Study C 2015 Age at menarche and risks of coronary heart and other vascular diseases in a large UK cohort”. Circulation 131 (2015): 237-244.
11. Charalampopoulos D., et al. “Age at menarche and risks of all-cause and cardiovascular death: a systematic review and meta-analysis”. American Journal of Epidemiology 180 (2014): 29-40.
12. Bleil M E., et al. “Pubertal timing, androgens, and obesity phenotypes in women at midlife”. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 1 (2012): 948-1952.
13. Schneider G., et al. “Increased estrogen production in obese men”. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 48 (1979): 633-638,124.
14. Tchernof A., et al. “Relation of steroid hormones to glucose tolerance and plasma insulin levels in men. Importance of visceral adipose tissue”. Diabetes Care 18 (1995): 292-299.
15. Heine PA., et al. “Increased adipose tissue in male and female estrogen receptor-alpha knockout mice”. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 97 (2000): 12729-12734.
16. Mauvais-Jarvis F., et al. “The role of estrogens in control of energy balance and glucose homeostasis”. Endocrine Review (2013): 309-338.
17. McNelis J C., et al. “Macrophages, immunity, and metabolic disease”. Immunity 41 (2019): 36-48.
18. Chawla A., et al. “Macrophage-mediated inflammation in metabolic disease”. Nature Review Immunology (2011): 738-749.
19. Tiano J P and Mauvais-Jarvis F. “Importance of oestrogen receptors to preserve functional beta-cell mass in diabetes”. Nature Review Endocrinology 8 (2012): 342-351.
20. Lundholm L., et al. “Key lipogenic gene expression can be decreased by estrogen in human adipose tissue”. Fertility and Sterility 90 (2008): 44-48.
21. Elbers JM., et al. “Effects of sex steroids on components of the insulin resistance syndrome in transsexual subjects”. Clinical Endocrinology (Oxf). (2008): 562-571.
22. Goodarzi MO., et al. “Polycystic ovary syndrome: etiology, pathogenesis and diagnosis”. Nature Review Endocrinology 7 (2011): 219-231.
23. DeUgarte CM., et al. “Prevalence of insulin resistance in the polycystic ovary syndrome using the homeostasis model assessment”. Fertility and Sterility 83 (2008): 1454-1460.
24. Borruel S., et al. “Global adiposity and thickness of intraperitoneal and mesenteric adipose tissue depots are increased in women with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS)”. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism (2013): 1254-1263.
25. Martinez-Garcia M A., et al. “Evidence for masculinization of adipokine gene expression in visceral and subcutaneous adipose tissue of obese women with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS)”. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism (2013): 388-396.
26. Rojas J., et al. “Polycystic ovary syndrome, insulin resistance, and obesity: navigating the pathophysiologic labyrinth”. International Journal of Reproductive Medicine 2014 (2014): 719050.
27. Tziomalos K., et al. “Comparison of markers of insulin resistance and circulating androgens between women with polycystic ovary syndrome and women with metabolic syndrome”. Human Reproduction 28 (2013): 785-793.
28. Al-Nozha O., et al. “Body weight reduction and metformin: Roles in polycystic ovary syndrome”. Pathophysiology 20 (2013): 131-137.
29. Practice Committee of the American Society for Reproductive Medicine. {Electronic address Aao, Practice Committee of the American Society for Reproductive M 2017}. “Role of metformin for ovulation induction in infertile patients with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS): a guideline”. Fertility and Sterility 3 (2017): 426-441.
30. Tang T., et al. “Insulin-sensitising drugs (metformin, rosiglitazone, pioglitazone, D-chiro-inositol) for women with polycystic ovary syndrome, oligo amenorrhoea and subfertility”. Cochrane Database System Review (2017): CD003053.
31. Legro RS. “Ovulation induction in polycystic ovary syndrome: Current options”. Best Practice and Research Clinical Obstetrics and Gynaecology 37 (2017): 152-159.
32. Wen Y., et al. “Breast cancer risk in patients with polycystic ovary syndrome: a Mendelian randomization analysis”. Breast Cancer Research and Treatment (2021): 799-806.
33. Kohnepoushi P., et al. “The effect of the polycystic ovary syndrome and hypothyroidism on the risk of fibrocystic breast changes: a meta-analysis”. Cancer Cell International 125 (2022).
34. Pierce B/ L and Burgess S. “Efcient design for Mendelian randomization studies: subsample and 2sample instrumental variable estimators”. American Journal of Epidemiology7 (2013): 1177-1184.
35. Harris HR., et al. “Association between genetically predicted polycystic ovary syndrome and ovarian cancer: a Mendelian randomization study”. International Journal of Epidemiology 3 (2019): 822-830.
36. Day F., et al. “Large-scale genome-wide meta-analysis of polycystic ovary syndrome suggests shared genetic architecture for different diagnosis criteria”. PLoS Genetics 12 (2018): e100781328.
37. Hemani G., et al. “The MR-Base platform supports systematic causal inference across the human phenome”. eLife. 7. (2019): 34408.
38. VanderWeele T J., et al. “Methodological challenges in mendelian randomization”. Epidemiology 3 (2015): 427-435.
39. Bowden J., et al. “A framework for the investigation of pleiotropy in two-sample summary data Mendelian randomization”. Statistics in Medicine 11 (2017): 1783-1802
40. Dimitrakakis C and Bondy C. “Androgens and the breast”. Breast Cancer Research5 (2009): 212.
41. Schmitt M., et al. “Dehydroepiandrosterone stimulates proliferation and gene expression in MCF7 cells after conversion to estradiol”. Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology (2001): 1-2.
42. Shobeiri F and Jenabi E. “The association between polycystic ovary syndrome and breast cancer: a meta-analysis”. Obstetrics and Gynecology Science5. (2016): 367-372.
43. Carvalho MJ., et al. “Controversial association between polycystic ovary syndrome and breast cancer”. European Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology and Reproductive Biology 243 (2019): 125-132.
44. Rocca M., et al. “Polycystic ovary syndrome: chemical pharmacotherapy”. Expert Opinion on Pharmacotherapy 16 (2016): 1369-1393.
45. Key T and Pike M. “The dose-effect relationship between ‘unopposed’ oestrogens and endometrial mitotic rate: its central role in explaining and predicting endometrial cancer risk”. British Journal of Cancer 57 (2009): 205-212.
46. Harris HR and Terry KL. “Polycystic ovary syndrome and risk of endometrial, ovarian, and breast cancer: a systematic review”. Fertility Research and Practice 2 (2016): 14.
47. Pollak M N. “Investigating Metformin for Cancer Prevention and Treatment: The End of the Beginning”. Cancer Discovery (2012): 778-90.
48. Gandini S., et al. “Metformin and Cancer Risk and Mortality: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis Taking into Account Biases and Confounders”. Cancer Preventive Research 7 (2014): 867-885.
49. Rattan R., et al. “Metformin attenuates ovarian cancer cell growth in an AMP-kinase dispensable manner”. Journal of Cellular and Molecular Medicine 15 (2011): 166-78.104.
50. Rattan R., et al. “Metformin suppresses ovarian cancer growth and metastasis with enhancement of cisplatin cytotoxicity in vivo”. Neoplasia. 13. (2011): 483-491.
51. Kumar S., et al. “Metformin intake is associated with better survival in ovarian cancer”. Cancer 119 (2013): 555-562.
52. Romero I., et al. “Relationship of type II diabetes and metformin use to ovarian cancer progression, survival, and chemosensitivity”. Obstetrics and Gynecology 119 (2012): 61-67.
53. Houssami N., et al. “Accuracy and surgical impact of magnetic resonance imaging in breast cancer staging: systematic review and metaanalysis in detection of multifocal and multicentric cancer”. Journal of Clinical Oncology19 (2008): 3248-3258.
54. Sparano J A., et al. “Weekly paclitaxel in the adjuvant treatment of breast cancer”. The New England Journal of Medicine16 (2008): 1663-1671.
55. Sparano JA., et al. “Long-Term Follow-Up of the E1199 Phase III Trial Evaluating the Role of Taxane and Schedule in Operable Breast Cancer”. Journal of Clinical Oncology 21 (2015): 2353-2360.
56. Swain SM., et al. “Definitive results of a phase III adjuvant trial comparing three chemotherapy regimens in women with operable, nodepositive breast”. Journal of Clinical Oncology 26 (2016): 3197-3204.
57. Doval DC., et al. “A multi-institutional real world data study from India of 3453 non-metastatic breast cancer patients undergoing upfront surgery”. Scientific Report 10 (2020): 5886.
58. Perez EA., et al. “Trastuzumab plus adjuvant chemotherapy for human epidermal growth factor receptor 2-positive breast cancer: planned joint analysis of overall survival from NSABP B-31 and NCCTG N9831”. Journal of Clinical Oncology 33 (2014): 3744-3752.
59. Piccart-Gebhart MJ., et al. “Trastuzumab after adjuvant chemotherapy in HER2-positive breast cancer”. The New England Journal of Medicine16 (2005): 1659-1672.
60. Romond E H., et al. “Trastuzumab plus adjuvant chemotherapy for operable HER2-positive breast cancer”. The New England Journal of Medicine16 (2005): 1673-1684.
61. Slamon D., et al. “Adjuvant trastuzumab in HER2-positive breast cancer”. The New England Journal of Medicine 14 (2011): 1273-1283.
62. Burstein HJ and Griggs JJ. “Adjuvant hormonal therapy for early-stage breast cancer”. Surgical Oncology Clinics of North America3 (2010): 639-647.

Citation

Citation: Manasa Mohan A and Sabu Thomas. “Hormonal Imbalance and Breast Cancer in Women". Acta Scientific Women's Health 4.12 (2022): 20-26.

Copyright

Copyright: © 2022 Manasa Mohan A and Sabu Thomas. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.