Dr. Anusha Sunder*

Doctorate in Lifescience/Human Nutrition, Accredited Certification in Nutrigenetics, Lead Scientist and Nutrigenetic Expert, Xcode Life Sciences, Pvt. Ltd. Chennai, India

*Corresponding Author: Dr. Anusha Sunder, Doctorate in Lifescience/Human Nutrition, Accredited Certification in Nutrigenetics, Lead Scientist and Nutrigenetic Expert, Xcode Life Sciences, Pvt. Ltd. Chennai, India.

Received: April 26, 2024; Published: May 22, 2024

Abstract

May it be fluid-electrolyte balance, keeping the heart beat/rhythm normal, neuromuscular function or a sensory attribute like palatability, common salt or sodium chloride has its role manifold. Salt, isn’t this the prime component making our meal delicious? Of course YES! But will its excess still make the meal delicious? Absolutely NOT! Like our meal our health also struggles to handle excess salt. And this definition of excess can vary between individuals based on genetic make-up. Let’s find out how and why...

 Keywords: Salt; Sodium; Blood Pressure; Hypertension; Salt Sensitivity; Gene; Allele; Renin-angiotensin-Aldosterone System (RAAS); Renin-Angiotensin Converting Enzyme (ACE); Angiotensinogen (AGT); Angiotensin II Type 1 Receptor (AGTR); Epithelial Sodium Channel (ENaC); 11-Beta Hydroxy Steroid Dehydrogenase (11-BHSD); Sympathetic Alpha Receptor; Beta Receptor Gene; Endothelial Nitric Oxide Synthase; Adducin Gene; ACE Inhibitors

References

1. Brown IJ., et al. “Salt intakes around the world: implications for public health”. International Journal of Epidemiology 3 (2009): 791-813.
2. "Population sodium reduction strategies". The World Health Organization. Accessed November 14th (2013).
3. Whelton., et al. “Sodium, blood pressure, and cardiovascular disease: Further evidence supporting the American Heart Association sodium reduction recommendations”. Circulation 126 (2012): 2880-2889.
4. Mugavero KL., et al. “Sodium reduction: an important public health strategy for heart health”. Journal of Public Health Management and Practice : JPHMP1 (2014): S1-5.
5. https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/files/docs/resources/heart/filipino-health-manual/session-4/read.pdf
6. Grillo A., et al. “Sodium Intake and Hypertension”. Nutrients9 (2019): 1970.
7. Marketou ME., et al. “Salt-induced effects on microvascular function: A critical factor in hypertension mediated organ damage”. Journal of Clinical Hypertension 21 (2019): 749-757.
8. Elijovich F., et al. “Salt sensitivity of blood pressure: A scientific statement from the american heart association”. Hypertension 68 (2016): e7-e46.
9. World Health Organization. Guideline: Sodium Intake for Adults and Children. World Health Organization; Geneva, Switzerland: (2012).
10. Weinberger MH. “Salt sensitivity of blood pressure in humans”. Hypertension 27 (1996): 481-490.
11. Strazzullo P., et al. “Salt intake, stroke, and cardiovascular disease: Meta-analysis of prospective studies”. BMJ 339 (2009):
12. Whelton PK and He J. “Health effects of sodium and potassium in humans”. Current Opinion in Lipidology 25 (2014): 75-79.
13. He FJ., et al. “Effect of longer term modest salt reduction on blood pressure: Cochrane systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised trials”. BMJ 346 (2013): f1325.
14. Appel LJ., et al. “The importance of population-wide sodium reduction as a means to prevent cardiovascular disease and stroke: a call to action from the American Heart Association”. Circulation1 (2011): 1138-1143.
15. Bibbins-Domingo K., et al. “Projected effect of dietary salt reductions on future cardiovascular disease”. The New England Journal of Medicine 7 (2010): 590-599.
16. Hannah R., et al. “Indian Spices for Healthy Heart - An Overview”. Current Cardiology Reviews 4 (2010): 274-279.
17. He FJ and MacGregor GA. “A comprehensive review on salt and health and current experience of worldwide salt reduction programmes”. Journal of Human Hypertension 23 (2009): 363-384.
18. Brown IJ., et al. “Salt intakes around the world: implications for public health”. International Journal of Epidemiology 38.3 (2009): 791-813.
19. Cook NR., et al. “Long term effects of dietary sodium reduction on cardiovascular disease outcomes: observational follow-up of the trials of hypertension prevention (TOHP)”. BMJ7599 (2017): 885-888.
20. Juraschek SP., et al. “Effects of Sodium Reduction and the DASH Diet in Relation to Baseline Blood Pressure”. Journal of the American College of Cardiology 23 (2017): 2841-2848.
21. Sacks FM., et al. “Effects on blood pressure of reduced dietary sodium and the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) diet. DASH-Sodium Collaborative Research Group”. New England Journal of Medicine 1 (2001): 3-10.
22. Mozaffarian D., et al. “Global sodium consumption and death from cardiovascular causes”. New England Journal of Medicine 7 (2014): 624-634.
23. He FJ and MacGregor GA. “How far should salt intake be reduced?”. Hypertension6 (2003): 1093-1099.
24. He FJ and MacGregor GA. “Effect of modest salt reduction on blood pressure: a meta-analysis of randomized trials. Implications for public health”. Journal of Human Hypertension11 (2002): 761-770.
25. Krishnan R., et al. “Association of angiotensin converting enzyme gene insertion/deletion polymorphism with essential hypertension in south Indian population”. Genes Disease2 (2016): 159-163.
26. Doaei S and Gholamalizadeh M. “The association of genetic variations with sensitivity of blood pressure to dietary salt: A narrative literature review”. ARYA Atheroscler3 (2014): 169-174.
27. Sanada H., et al. “Genetics of salt-sensitive hypertension”. Current Hypertension Report1 (2011): 55-66.
28. Watkins WS., et al. “Genotype-phenotype analysis of angiotensinogen polymorphisms and essential hypertension: the importance of haplotypes”. Journal of Hypertension1 (2010): 65-75.
29. Lalouel JM and Rohrwasser A. “Genetic susceptibility to essential hypertension: insight from angiotensinogen”. Hypertension3 (2007): 597-603.
30. Lupoli S., et al. “Dietary Salt Intake, Blood Pressure, and Genes”. Current Nutrition Reports 2 (2013): 134-141.
31. Caprioli J., et al. “Polymorphisms of EDNRB, AGT, and ACE genes in salt-sensitive hypertension”. Canadian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology 8 (2008): 505-510.
32. Liu K., et al. “Genetic Predisposition and Salt Sensitivity in a Chinese Han Population: The EpiSS Study”. International Journal of Hypertension 2020 (2020): 3167875.
33. Yang H., et al. “Polymorphisms within angiotensin II receptor type 1 gene associated with essential hypertension in Chinese Hani and Yi minorities”. Journal of the Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System 3 (2015): 653-659.
34. Gu D., et al. “Genetic variants in the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system and salt sensitivity of blood pressure”. Journal of Hypertension6 (2010): 1210-1220.
35. Kelly TN., et al. “Resequencing Study Identifies Rare Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System Variants Associated With Blood Pressure Salt-Sensitivity: The GenSalt Study”. American Journal of Hypertension 5 (2017): 495-501.
36. Pimphen Charoen., et al. “Contribution of Four Polymorphisms in Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone-Related Genes to Hypertension in a Thai Population”. International Journal of Hypertension (2019).
37. Kurtz TW., et al. “The American Heart Association Scientific Statement on salt sensitivity of blood pressure: Prompting consideration of alternative conceptual frameworks for the pathogenesis of salt sensitivity?”. Journal of Hypertension 11 (2017): 2214-2225.
38. Mishra S., et al. “Salt sensitivity and its implication in clinical practice”. Indian Heart Journal4 (2018): 556-564.
39. Houston MC. “The role of nutrition, nutraceuticals, vitamins, antioxidants, and minerals in the prevention and treatment of hypertension”. Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine 19 (2013): 32-49.
40. Alexander W. “Hypertension: is it time to replace drugs with nutrition and nutraceuticals?”. P T. 39.4 (2013): 291-295.
41. Anna Iwaniak., et al. “Food‐Originating ACE Inhibitors, Including Antihypertensive Peptides, as Preventive Food Components in Blood Pressure Reduction”. Comprehensive reviews in Food Science and Food Safety2 (2014): 114-134.
42. Abachi S., et al. “Antihypertensive and Angiotensin-I-Converting Enzyme (ACE)-Inhibitory Peptides from Fish as Potential Cardioprotective Compounds”. Marine Drugs11 (2019): 613.
43. Adrián Sánchez and Alfredo Vázquez. “Bioactive peptides: A review”. Food Quality and Safety 1.1 (2017): 29-46.
44. Ried K and Fakler P. “Potential of garlic (Allium sativum) in lowering high blood pressure: mechanisms of action and clinical relevance”. Integrated Blood Pressure Control 7 (2014): 71-82.
45. Ried K., et al. “Aged garlic extract reduces blood pressure in hypertensives: a dose-response trial”. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 67 (2013a): 64-70.

Citation

Citation: Dr. Anusha Sunder. “How Much of Salt is too Much for You? Let Your Genes Say...”.Acta Scientific Medical Sciences 8.6 (2024): 85-91.

Copyright

Copyright: © 2024 Dr. Anusha Sunder. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.