Onosakponome Evelyn Orevaoghene¹*, Ndefrekeabasi Itek Robinson², Enyinnaya Stella Ogbonnie², Lawson Stephenson Danagogo² and Goodness Tamunonengiyeofori Elijah¹

¹Department of Medical Laboratory Science, Pamo University of Medical Sciences, Port Harcourt, Nigeria
²Department of Medical Microbiology and Parasitology, Rivers State University, Port Harcourt, Nigeria

*Corresponding Author: Onosakponome Evelyn Orevaoghene, Department of Medical Laboratory Science, Pamo University of Medical Sciences, Port Harcourt, Nigeria.

Received: August 27, 2024; Published: September 30, 2024

Abstract

Soil-transmitted helminths (STHs), or geohelminths, are parasitic nematodes that spread through eggs and larvae found in contaminated soil. These infections are most common in tropical and subtropical regions, where poor sanitation exacerbates the risk. In the Americas, around 46 million preschool and school-age children are vulnerable to STH infections, which can lead to symptoms like intestinal distress, general malaise, and anemia. Diagnosing STHs is complicated due to intermittent egg shedding, limited trained personnel, and inadequate diagnostic tools. Traditionally, diagnosis relied on microscopy, a method with low sensitivity. However, the trend has shifted towards more accurate molecular diagnostics, particularly quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR). This shift from conventional microscopy to molecular techniques, including serology, represents a significant advancement. The World Health Organization now advocates for the integration of molecular diagnostics into STH elimination programs, emphasizing the need for precise and timely diagnosis to reduce the morbidity and mortality associated with these infections.

 Keywords: Soil-Transmitted Helminths (STHs); World Health Organization

References

1. Holland CV., et al. “The Geohelminths: Ascaris, Trichuris and Hookworm”. Springer Science and Business Media; (2002).
2. Bethony J., et al. “Soil-transmitted helminth infections: ascariasis, trichuriasis, and hookworm”. The Lancet9521 (2006): 1521-1532.
3. Sieloff EM., et al. “Gastrointestinal tract infections”. International Journal of Child and Adolescent Health4 (2023).
4. De Silva NR., et al. “Soil-transmitted helminth infections: updating the global picture’’. Trends in parasitology12 (2001): 547-551.
5. Pullan RL., et al. “Global numbers of infection and disease burden of soil transmitted helminth infections in 2010”. Parasites and Vectors 7 (2014): 1-9.
6. Parija SC., et al. “Epidemiology and clinical features of soil-transmitted helminths”. Tropical Parasitology2 (2017): 81-85.
7. Kattula D., et al. “Prevalence & risk factors for soil transmitted helminth infection among school children in south India”. Indian Journal of Medical Research1 (2014): 76-82.
8. Jain SK., et al. “Prevalence of soil-transmitted helminthic infection in India in current scenario: a systematic review”. Journal of Communication Disease2 (2016): 24-35.
9. Ngwese MM., et al. “Diagnostic techniques of soil-transmitted helminths: Impact on control measures”. Tropical Medicine and Infectious Disease. 5.2 (2020).
10. World Health Organization. “Prevention and control of schistosomiasis and soil-transmitted helminthiasis: World Health Organization/Unicef joint statement”. World Health Organization (2004).
11. Karshima SN. “Prevalence and distribution of soil-transmitted helminth infections in Nigerian children: a systematic review and meta-analysis”. Infectious Diseases of Poverty4 (2018): 1-4.
12. Tarafder MR., et al. “Estimating the sensitivity and specificity of Kato-Katz stool examination technique for detection of hookworms, Ascaris lumbricoides and Trichuris trichiura infections in humans in the absence of a ‘gold standard’. International Journal for Parasitology4 (2010): 399-404.
13. Sieloff EM., et al. “Gastrointestinal tract infections”. International Journal of Child and Adolescent Health4 (2023).
14. Banoo S., et al. “Evaluation of diagnostic tests for infectious diseases: general principles”. Nature Reviews Microbiology11 (2007): S21-31.
15. Easton AV., et al. “Sources of variability in the measurement of Ascaris lumbricoides infection intensity by Kato-Katz and qPCR”. Parasites and Vectors 10 (2017): 1-4.
16. Bosch F., et al. “Diagnosis of soil-transmitted helminths using the Kato-Katz technique: What is the influence of stirring, storage time and storage temperature on stool sample egg counts?”. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases1 (2021): e0009032.
17. Knopp S., et al. “FLOTAC: a promising technique for detecting helminth eggs in human faeces”. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene12 (2009): 1190-1194.
18. Cheesbrough M. “Parasitological tests”. District Laboratory Practice in Tropical Countries, Part 1 (1999): 220-221.
19. Nikolay B., et al. “Sensitivity of diagnostic tests for human soil-transmitted helminth infections: a meta-analysis in the absence of a true gold standard”. International Journal for parasitology11 (2014): 765-774.
20. Marti H and Escher E. “SAF--an alternative fixation solution for parasitological stool specimens. Schweizerische Medizinische Wochenschrift40 (1990): 1473-1476.
21. Richardson DJ., et al. “Comparison of Kato–Katz Direct Smear and Sodium Nitrate Flotation for Detection of Geohelminth Infections”. Comparative Parasitology2 (2008): 339-341.
22. Cringoli G., et al. “FLOTAC: new multivalent techniques for qualitative and quantitative copromicroscopic diagnosis of parasites in animals and humans”. Nature Protocols3 (2010): 503-515.
23. Ridley RG. “Diagnostics take centre stage”. Nature Reviews Microbiology9 (2006): S1.
24. Cheesbrough M. “District laboratory practice in tropical countries, part 2”. Cambridge university press; (2006).
25. Anderson RM and Schad GA. “Hookworm burdens and faecal egg counts: an analysis of the biological basis of variation”. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene6 (1985): 812-825.
26. Levecke B., et al. “A comparison of the sensitivity and fecal egg counts of the McMaster egg counting and Kato-Katz thick smear methods for soil-transmitted helminths”. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases6 (2011): e1201.
27. Levecke B., et al. “Field validity and feasibility of four techniques for the detection of Trichuris in simians: a model for monitoring drug efficacy in public health?”. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases1 (2009): e366.
28. Koga K., et al. “A modified agar plate method for detection of Strongyloides stercoralis”. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene4 (1991): 518-521.
29. Hsieh HC. “Employment of a test-tube filter-paper method for the diagnosis of Ancylostoma duodenale, Necator americanus and Strongyloides stercoralis”. Geneva: World Health Organization. Inmimeographed document AFR/ANCYL/CONF/16 1961 (pp. 37-41). World Health Organization Geneva.
30. Sasa M., et al. “Application of test-tube cultivation method on the survey of hookworm and related human nematodes infection”. (2014).
31. Sapero JJ and Lawless DK. “The "MIF" Stain-Preservation Teohnic for the Identification of Intestinal Protozoa”.
32. Biagg W., et al. “A new concentration technic for the demonstration of protozoa and helminth eggs in feces”. (2014).
33. Glinz D., et al. “Comparing diagnostic accuracy of Kato-Katz, Koga agar plate, ether-concentration, and FLOTAC for Schistosoma mansoni and soil-transmitted helminths”. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases7 (2010): e754.
34. Sykes AM and McCarthy JS. “A coproantigen diagnostic test for Strongyloides infection”. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases2 (2011): e955.
35. Bungiro Jr RD and Cappello M. “Detection of excretory/secretory coproantigens in experimental hookworm infection”. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene5 (2005): 915-920.
36. O'Connell E M and Nutman T B. “Molecular diagnostics for soil-transmitted helminths”. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene3 (2016): 508.
37. Gordon CA., et al. “DNA amplification approaches for the diagnosis of key parasitic helminth infections of humans”. Molecular and Cellular Probes4 (2011): 143-152.
38. Amoah ID., et al. “Detection and quantification of soil-transmitted helminths in environmental samples: A review of current state-of-the-art and future perspectives”. Acta Tropica 169 (2017): 187-201.
39. Arndt MB., et al. “Impact of helminth diagnostic test performance on estimation of risk factors and outcomes in HIV-positive adults”. PLoS One12 (2013): e81915.
40. Verweij JJ., et al. “Simultaneous detection of Entamoeba histolytica, Giardia lamblia, and Cryptosporidium parvum in fecal samples by using multiplex real-time PCR”. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 3 (2004): 1220-1223.
41. Verweij JJ., et al. “Simultaneous detection and quantification of Ancylostoma duodenale, Necator americanus, and Oesophagostomum bifurcum in fecal samples using multiplex real-time PCR”. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene4 (2007): 685-690.
42. Mori Y., et al. “Loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP): recent progress in research and development”. Journal of Infection and chemotherapy3 (2013): 404-411.
43. Mejia R., et al. “A novel, multi-parallel, real-time polymerase chain reaction approach for eight gastrointestinal parasites provides improved diagnostic capabilities to resource-limited at-risk populations”. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene6 (2013): 1041.
44. Stracke K., et al. “Development and validation of a multiplexed-tandem qPCR tool for diagnostics of human soil-transmitted helminth infections”. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases6 (2019): e0007363.
45. Cunningham LJ., et al. “Developing a real-time PCR assay based on multiplex high-resolution melt-curve analysis: a pilot study in detection and discrimination of soil-transmitted helminth and schistosome species”. Parasitology 13 (2018): 1733-1738.
46. Khurana S., et al. “Diagnostic techniques for soil-transmitted helminths–Recent advances”. Research and Reports in Tropical Medicine (2021): 181-196.
47. Papaiakovou M., et al. “Quantitative PCR-based diagnosis of soil-transmitted helminth infections: faecal or fickle?”. Trends in Parasitology7 (2019): 491-500.
48. Demeke G., et al. “Evaluation of wet mount and concentration techniques of stool examination for intestinal parasites identification at Debre markos comprehensive specialized Hospital, Ethiopia”. Infection and Drug Resistance (2021): 1357-1362.
49. Dana D., et al. “Diagnostic sensitivity of direct wet mount microscopy for soil-transmitted helminth infections in Jimma Town, Ethiopia”. The Journal of Infection in Developing Countries6.1 (2020): 66S-71S.
50. Hailu T., et al. “Evaluation of five diagnostic methods for Strongyloides stercoralis infection in Amhara National Regional State, northwest Ethiopia”. BMC Infectious Diseases1 (2022): 297.
51. Fenta A., et al. “Evaluating the performance of diagnostic methods for soil transmitted helminths in the Amhara National Regional State, Northwest Ethiopia”. BMC Infectious Diseases 20 (2020): 1-8.
52. Manuel M., et al. “Molecular tools for diagnosis and surveillance of soil-transmitted helminths in endemic areas”. Parasitologia3 (2021): 105-118.
53. Else KJ., et al. “Whipworm and roundworm infections”. Nature Reviews Disease Primers1 (2020): 44.
54. Hailegebriel T., et al. “Evaluation of parasitological methods for the detection of Strongyloides stercoralis among individuals in selected health institutions In Addis Ababa, Ethiopia”. Ethiopian Journal of Health Sciences 5 (2017): 515-522.
55. Miswan N., et al. “Advantages and limitations of microscopy and molecular detections for diagnosis of soil-transmitted helminths: An overview”. Helminthologia 4 (2022): 321-340.
56. Fleitas PE., et al. “Scope and limitations of a multiplex conventional PCR for the diagnosis of S. stercoralis and hookworms”. The Brazilian Journal of Infectious Diseases6 (2021): 101649.
57. George S., et al. “Identification of Ancylostoma ceylanicum in children from a tribal community in Tamil Nadu, India using a semi-nested PCR-RFLP tool”. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene4 (2015): 283-285.
58. Othman N., et al. “Multiplex real-time PCR revealed very high prevalence of soil-transmitted helminth infections among aborigines in Peninsular Malaysia”. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Medicine12 (2020): 550-556.
59. Benjamin-Chung J., et al. “Comparison of multi-parallel qPCR and double-slide Kato-Katz for detection of soil-transmitted helminth infection among children in rural Bangladesh”. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases4 (2020): e0008087.
60. Stuyver LJ and Levecke B. “The role of diagnostic technologies to measure progress toward WHO 2030 targets for soil-transmitted helminth control programs”. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases6 (2021): e0009422.
61. Ngari MG., et al. “Development and evaluation of a loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) diagnostic test for detection of whipworm, Trichuris trichiura, in faecal samples”. Journal of Helminthology 94 (2020): e142.

Citation

Citation: Onosakponome Evelyn Orevaoghene., et al. “Evolution of Soil-transmitted Helminth Diagnosis: Transition from Traditional Microscopy to Advanced Molecular Techniques in the 21^st Century”.Acta Scientific Medical Sciences 8.10 (2024): 133-142.

Copyright

Copyright: © 2024 Onosakponome Evelyn Orevaoghene., et al. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.