Mahendra Pal¹*, Iyasu Ejeta², Adugna Girma³, Kushagra Dave⁴ and Pratibha Dave⁵

¹Narayan Consultancy on Veterinary Public Health and Microbiology, Gujarat, India

*Corresponding Author: Mahendra Pal, Professor, Founder Director of Narayan Consultancy on Veterinary Public Health and Microbiology, Gujarat, India.

Received: April 11, 2022; Published: April 29, 2022

Abstract

Leishmaniasis is the most neglected an intracellular protozoan disease caused by genus Leishmania and it has a geographic distribution in 98 countries in the world. Currently, over 350 million people are at risk of the infection; and about 60,000 deaths are estimated to occur from both cutaneous leishmaniasis and visceral leishmaniasis each year in the world. Infected female sand-fly genus Phlebotomus and Lutzomyia are responsible for transmission of leishmaniasis in the old and new worlds, respectively. The disease is occurring in a complicated variation in domestic and wild mammal reservoir hosts and sand fly as biological vector. The clinical manifestation of disease occurs in three main forms viz: cutaneous leishmaniasis, muco-cutaneous leishmaniasis, and visceral leishmaniasis. Laboratory techniques that include parasitological examination, immunological technique and molecular tools are imperative to establish an unequivocal diagnosis of leishmaniasis. A number of chemotherapeutic agents have been tried, however, treatment still remains challenging. Also the complex genetic and the population diversity of both the parasites and vectors make the control of this disease very difficult. Recently, leishmaniasis has been emerged or re-emerged in many geographical areas of the world. Thus globally coordinated more studies and assessment of the disease toward complexity chains in domestic and wild mammal reservoir hosts and the vector where leishmaniasis is endemic is recommended.

Keywords: Epidemiology; Leishmaniasis; Public Health; Reservoir Hosts; Sand-fly; Zoonotic
Importance

References

1. Pal M. “Zoonoses”. Second Edition Satyam Publishers, Jaipur, India (2007).
2. OryanA., et al. “Risk factors associated with leishmaniasis”. Tropical Medicine Surgery 2 (2014): 3.
3. Hailu T., et al. “Challenges in visceral leishmaniasis control and elimination in the developing countries A review”. Journal of Vector Borne Diseases 53 (2016): 193-198.
4. Burza S., et al. “Leishmaniasis”. Lancet 15 (2018): 951-970.
5. “Leishmaniasis (Cutanous and Visceral) in collaboration with Institute for International Cooperation in Animal Biologics and Iowa State University College of veterinary Medicine”. Centre for Food Security and Public Health (2017): 1-18.
6. Coura-Vital CW., et al. “Canine visceral leishmaniasis: incidence and risk factors for infection in a cohort study in Brazil”. Veterinary Parasitology 197 (2013): 411-417.
7. Herrador Z., et al. “Epidemiological changes in leishmaniasis in Spain according to hospitalization-based records, 1997- 2011: Raising awareness towards leishmaniasis in non-HIV patients”. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 9 (2015): e0003594.
8. Gramiccia M and Gradoni L. “The current status of zoonotic leishmaniases and approaches to disease control”. International Journal of Parasitology 35 (2005): 1169-1180.
9. Alvar J., et al. “Leishmaniasis worldwide and global estimates of its incidence”. PLoS One 7 (2012): e35671.
10. Bessat M., et al. “Leishmaniasis: Epidemiology, control and future perspectives with special emphasis on Egypt”. Journal of Tropical Diseases 153 (2015).
11. Garrido‑JareñoM., et al. “Cutaneous and mucocutaneous leishmaniasis: experience of a Mediterranean hospital”. Parasites Vectors 13.24 (2020).
12. Rose K., et al. “Cutaneous leishmaniasis in red kangaroos: isolation and characterization of the causative organisms”. International Journal of Parasitology 34 (2004): 655-664.
13. Goto H and Lindoso JA. “Current diagnosis and treatment of cutaneous and mucocutaneous leishmaniasis”. Expert Review Anti infectious 8 (2010): 419-433.
14. Maroli M., et al. “Phlebotomies sand flies: and the spreading of leishmaniases and other diseases of public health concern”. Medical Veterinary Entomology 27 (2013): 123-147.
15. Dantas-Torres F., et al. “Canine leishmaniasis in the old and new world: Unveiled similarities and differences”. Trends in Parasitology 28 (2012): 531-538.
16. Gebremichael D. “Zoonotic impact and epidemiological changes of leishmaniasis in Ethiopia”. Open Veterinary Journal 8 (2018): 432-440.
17. Ayele A and Seyoum Z. “A review on canine leishmaniasis: Etiology, clinical sign, pathogenesis, treatment and control methods”. Global Veterinaria 1 7 (2016): 343-352.
18. Amarasinghe A and Wickramasinghe S. “A comprehensive review of cutaneous leishmaniasis in Sri Lanka and identifcation of existing knowledge gaps”. Acta Parasitologica. 65 (2020): 300-309.
19. Mullen and Durden L. “Medical and Veterinary Entomology”. Elsevier Inc. China (2002): 158-160.
20. Otranto DF., et al. “Efficacy of a combination of 10% imidachlorid and 50% permethrin for the prevention of leishmaniasis in kenneled dogs in an endemic area”. Veterinary Parasitology 44 (2007): 270-278.
21. Robert MT. “Current understandings on the immunology leishmaniasis and recent developments in prevention and treatment”. British Medical Bulletin 5 (2006): 115-130.
22. Parija S. “Textbook of Medicinal Parasitology ”. Indica PN (2004) 94-100.
23. WHO (World Health Organization). “Leishmaniasis” 336 (2020).
24. Desjeux P. “Leishmaniasis: current situation and new perspectives”. Comparative Immunology Microbiology and Infectious Diseases 27 (2004): 305-318.
25. WHO (World Health Organization).“Leishmaniasis”. Fact sheet. World Health Organization, Geneva (2015).
26. Spear CR. “Review of mathematical models for neglected tropical diseases: Essential tools for control and elimination”. Parasitology Vectors 10 (2017).
27. Lemma W., et al. “Population dynamics and habitat preferences of Phlebotomus orientalis in extra-domestic habitats of Kafta Humera low lands-kala azar endemic areas in Northwest Ethiopia”. Parasitology Vectors 359 (2014).
28. Lemma W. “Zoonotic leishmaniasis and controls in Ethiopia”. Asian Pacific Journal Tropical Medicine 11 (2018): 313 -319.
29. Leta S., et al. “Visceral leishmaniasis in Ethiopia: An evolving disease”. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 8.9 (2014): e3131.
30. ul Bari A. “Epidemiology of cutaneous leishmaniasis”. Journal of Pakistan Association of Dermatologists 16 (2006): 156-162.
31. Tesh RB and Guzman H. “Sand flies and the agents they transmit”. In: Beaty BH, Marquardt WC, editors”. The Biology of Disease Vectors. Niwot, CO: University of Colorado Press , USA (1998): 117-27.
32. Claborn M. “The biology and control of leishmaniasis vectors”. Journal of Global Infectious Diseases 2 (2010).
33. Ready PD. “Biology of phlebotomine sand fly as vectors of disease agents”. Annual Review Entomology 58 (2013): 227-250.
34. Kumar A. “Leishmania and leishmaniasis”. Springer New York, USA (2013): 7-10.
35. Bates PA. “Transmission of leishmania, metacyclic promastigotes by phlebotomine sand fly”. International Journal Parasitology 37 (2007): 1097-1106.
36. “Control of the leishmaniases”. World Health Organization Technical Report Series 949 (2010): 1-186.
37. Roque AL and Jansen AM. “Wild and synanthropic reservoirs of Leishmania species in the Americas”. International Journal Parasitology Parasites Wildlife 3 (2014): 251-262.
38. Rohousova I., et al. “Exposure to Leishmania spp. and sand flies in domestic animals in northwestern Ethiopia”. Parasitology Vectors 8 (2015): 360.
39. Raymond RW., et al. “Temporal and spatial distribution of Leishmania mexicana infection in a population of Neotomamicropus”. Mem Institution Swaldo Cruz 98 (2003): 171-180.
40. Koutis CH. “Special Epidemiology”. Editions, Technological Educational Institute of Athens: Athens, Greece (2007).
41. Assafa D., et al. “Medical parasitology lecture notes degree and diploma programs for health science students. Jimma University, Debub University, University of Gondar In collaboration with the Ethiopia Public Health Training Initiative”. The Carter Center, the Ethiopia Ministry of Health, and the Ethiopia Ministry of Education (2004).
42. Taylor MA., et al. “Veterinary Parasitology 3rd edition”. Oxford Blackwell Publishing (2007): 407-408.
43. Baneth G and Shaw SE. “Chemotherapy of canine leishmaniosis”. Veterinary Parasitology 106 (2002) 315-324.
44. Silva FL., et al. “Venereal transmission of canine visceral leishmaniasis”. Veterinary Parasitology 160 (2009): 55-59.
45. Bari AU and Rahman SB. “Cutaneous leishmaniasis: an overview of parasitology and host-parasite-vector inter relationship”. Journal of Pakistan Association of Dermatologists 1 (2008): 42-48.
46. Galgamuwa LS., et al. “Clinico-epidemiological patterns of cutaneous leishmaniasis patients attending the Anuradhapura teaching hospital, Sri Lanka”. Korean Journal Parasitology 55 (2017): 1-7.
47. Siriwardana Y., et al. “First evidence for two independent and different leishmaniasis transmission foci in Sri Lanka: recent introduction or long-term existence?”. Journal of Tropical Medicine (2019).
48. Rajapaksa US., et al. “Cutaneous leishmaniasis in southern Sri Lanka”. Trans Social Tropical Medicine Hygiene 101 (2007): 799-803.
49. Chandrawansa PH., et al. “Cutaneous leishmaniasis-an emerging threat”. Journal of Ruhunu Clinical Societies 15 (2008): 20-24.
50. Ranawaka RR and Weerakoon HS. “Randomized, double-blind, comparative clinical trial on the efcacy and safety of intralesional sodium stibogluconate and intralesional 7% hypertonic sodium chloride against cutaneous leishmaniasis caused by L. donovani”. Journal of Dermatology and Treatment 21 (2010): 286-293.
51. Kariyawasam KK., et al. “Characterisation of cutaneous leishmaniasis in Matara district, southern Sri Lanka: evidence for case clustering”. Pathology Global Health. 109 (2015): 336-343.
52. deVries HJ., et al. “Cutaneous leishmaniasis: recent developments in diagnosis and management”. American Journal of Clinical Dermatology 16 (2015): 99-109.
53. Shirian S., et al. “Comparison of conventional, molecular, and immune histo-chemical methods in diagnosis of typical and atypical cutaneous leishmaniasis”. Archives of Pathology Laboratory Medicine 138 (2014): 235-240.
54. Elmahallawy EK., et al. “Diagnosis of leishmaniasis”. Journal of Infectious Countries 8 (2014): 961-972.
55. Reithinger R. “Diagnosis and treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis”. Expert Review Dermatology 3 (2014): 315-327.
56. Singh S., et al. “Applications of molecular methods for Leishmania control”. Expert Review Molecular Diagnosis 5 (2005): 251-265.
57. Boelaert M., et al. “A comparative study of the effectiveness of diagnostic tests for visceral leishmaniasis”. American Journal of Tropical Medicine Hygiene 70 (2004): 72-77.
58. Singh O. P., et al. “Xenodiagnosisto address key questions in visceral Leishmaniasis control and elimination”. PLoS Neglected Tropical Disease 14 (2020): e0008363.
59. Sadlova J., et al. “Xenodiagnosis of Leishmania donovani in BALB/c mice using Phlebotomus orientalis: a new laboratory model”. Parasitology Vectors 8 (2015): 158.
60. Akhoundi M., et al. “Leishmania infections: molecular targets and diagnosis”. Molecular Aspects of Medicine 57 (2017): 1-29.
61. Tlamcani Z. “Visceral leishmaniasis: an update of laboratory diagnosis”. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Diseases 6 (2016): 505-508.
62. Azizi K., et al. “Molecular detection of Leishmania isolated from cutaneous leishmaniasis patients in Jask County, Hormozgan Province, Southern Iran”. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Diseases 5 (2012): 514-517.
63. Shahbazi F., et al. “Evaluation of PCR assay in diagnosis and identification of cutaneous leishmaniasis: a comparison with the parasitological methods”. Parasitology Research 103 (2008): 1159-1162.
64. Bhalla N., et al. “Introduction to biosensors”. Essays Biochemicals 60 (2016): 1-8.
65. Zhang Z., et al. “Nanomaterials-based electrochemical immunosensors”. Micromachines 10 (2019):
66. Kaushik M., et al. “Emerging trends in advanced nanomaterials based electrochemical geno-sensors”. Current Pharmacology Dissertations 24 (2018): 3697-3709.
67. Jain S., et al. “Current and emerging tools for detecting protozoan cysts and oocysts in water”. TRAC Trends Analysis Chemistry 121 (2019): 115-695.
68. Jain S., et al. “Are Nanobiosensors an improved solution for diagnosis of Leishmania?”. Pharmaceutics 491 (2021).
69. Torres-Guerrero, E., et al. “Leishmaniasis: a review”. F1000 Research 6 (2017): 1-15.
70. David CV and Craft N. “Cutaneous and mucocutaneous leishmaniasis”. Dermatology Therapy 22 (2009): 491-502.
71. Vera-Izaguirre D., et al. “Leishmaniasis revision”. DCMQ 4 (2006): 252-260.
72. Reithinger R., et al. “Cutaneous leishmaniasis”. Lancet Infectious Diseases 7 (2007): 581-596.
73. Davies CR., et al. “The epidemiology and control of leishmaniasis in Andean countries”. Cad Saude Publica 16 (2000): 925-950.
74. Guerin PJ., et al. “Visceral leishmaniasis: Current status of control, diagnosis, and treatment, and a proposed research and development agenda”. Lancet Infectious Diseases 2 (2002): 494-501.
75. Siriwardana HY., et al. “Leishmania donovani and cutaneous leishmaniasis, Sri Lanka”. Emerging Infectious Diseases 13 (2007): 476-478.
76. Ahuja A., et al. “Zoonotic significance of cutaneous leishmaniasis - an important zoonosis of Western Rajasthan”. Intas Polivet 7 (2006): 437-443.
77. Akbari M. et al. “Application of nanotechnology in treatment of leishmaniasis: a review”. Acta Tropical 172 (2017): 86-90.
78. Musa A., et al. “Sodium stibogluconate (SSG) and paromomycin combination compared to SSG for visceral leishmaniasis in East Africa: a randomised controlled trial”. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 6 (2012): e1674.
79. Surendran SN., et al. “Molecular and biochemical characterization of a sand fly population from Sri Lanka: evidence for insecticide resistance due to altered esterases and insensitive acetylcholinesterase”. Bulletin of Entomology Research 95 (2005): 371-380.
80. Otranto DP., et al. “Toward diagnosing Leishmania infantum infection in asymptomatic dogs in an area where leishmaniasis is endemic”. Clinical Vaccine Immunology 16 (2009): 337-343.
81. Pal M., et al. “Leishmaniasis: An emerging and re-emerging disease of global public healthn concern”. American Journal of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology 10 (2022): 576-570.

Citation

Citation: Mahendra Pal., et al. “Etiology, Clinical Spectrum, Epidemiology, Diagnosis, Public Health Significance and Control of Leishmaniasis: A Comprehensive Review". Acta Scientific Microbiology 5.5 (2022): 140-151.

Copyright

Copyright: © 2022 Mahendra Pal., et al. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.