Acta Scientific Microbiology (ASMI) (ISSN: 2581-3226)

Review Article Volume 3 Issue 9

Influenza A Virus: Multi Species Host and Zoonoses

Sharanagouda Patil1*, Bramhadev Pattnaik2, Pinaki Panigrahi3 and Mahindra P Yadav4

1ICAR-National Institute of Veterinary Epidemiology and Disease Informatics (ICAR-NIVEDI), Yelahanka, Bengaluru, India
2One Health Center for Surveillance and Disease Dynamics, AIPH University, Bhubaneswar, Odisha and Former Director, ICAR- Directorate of Foot and Mouth Disease, Mukteswar, India
3Department of Pediatrics, Division of Neonatal-Perinatal Medicine, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC, USA
4Former Vice-Chancellor, SVP University of Agriculture and Technology, Meerut, India

*Corresponding Author: Sharanagouda Patil, ICAR-National Institute of Veterinary Epidemiology and Disease Informatics (ICAR-NIVEDI), Yelahanka, Bengaluru, India.

Received: June 25, 2020; Published: August 26, 2020

×

Abstract

Influenza A viruses (IAV) in the family Orthomyxoviridae, including all avian influenza viruses (AIVs), are enveloped, pleomorphic, and possess eight separate RNA genomic segments ranging in size between 890 and 2341 nucleotides. As observed by, the persistent and sporadic outbreaks of various Influenza A viruses in poultry and humans, respectively, warns the likelihood of avian influenza viruses (AIVs) becoming the next influenza pandemic strain. Further, among the vast pool of AIVs in nature, the HPAI A/H5N1 virus is believed to represent the greatest threat for the next flu pandemic. Therefore, the pandemic potential of subtypes of AIVs should not be overlooked and the domestic and aquatic wild bird populations should be under surveillance to monitor interspecies transmission. Such monitoring would help in understanding the ecology of human influenza and controlling avian zoonoses. The HA and NA glycoproteins on the virus surface encoded by separate RNA segments are antigenically diverse, and divide the IAVs into 18 H and 11 N antigenic subtypes, respectively. Aquatic birds like wild water fowl and ducks are natural host for AIV subtypes of H-1 to H-16 and N-1 to N-9. Two new subtypes each of HA and NA (H17N10, H18N11) have been recently identified in bats. Isolation of new AIV subtypes from bats has added another angle, in addition to the role of wild aquatic birds, to the ecology and emergence of influenza/flu epidemics/pandemics that can affect both terrestrial birds and human beings depending upon availability of receptors on host cells. Bats are likely ancient reservoir for a diverse pool of influenza virus. Influenza A viruses naturally circulate in a range of avian and mammalian species, including in humans. The Influenza A serotypes that have been confirmed in humans are, H1N1, H1N2 (endemic in humans, pigs and birds), H2N2, H3N2, H5N1, H6N1, H7N2, H7N3, H7N7, H7N9, H9N2, and H10N7. Although transmission of AIVs between pigs and humans have already been confirmed, direct transmission from avian to human beings and between human to human is seldom. Segmented nature of the viral RNA genome combined with its error-prone polymerase enzymes can produce novel virus strain(s) with expansion of host range, inter species transmission, higher virulence, multi organ involvement with potential to cause influenza pandemics. Introduction of influenza A viruses into poultry can cause severe illness often leading to high mortality. According to degree of pathogenicity, the avian influenza viruses (AIVs) are divided into two pathotypes; high pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) and low pathogenic avian influenza (LPAI) virus. Some HPAI strains of the H5 (H5N1) and H7 (H7N1, H7N3, and H7N7) subtypes are highly lethal in chickens with involvement of several organs other than the respiratory system. In contrast, LPAI strains mainly affect intestinal and/or respiratory tracts. Several AIV subtypes have caused zoonotic infections in humans (LPAIs H6N1, H7N2, H7N3, H7N4, H7N7, H7N9, H9N2, H10N7, H10N8, and HPAIs H5N1, H5N6, H7N3, H7N7, H7N9). Transmission of HPAI H5 and H7 viruses into humans in the recent past has been of significance from the point of zoonoses. First AIV zoonoses was caused by H5N1 virus in 1997 in Hong Kong, then spread to many parts of the World. Enzootic cocirculation of H5N1, H9N2, and H7N9 viruses in poultry birds has given rise to many novel reassortants with other viruses such as H10N8, H10N6, H5N8, H5N6, and H7N6. The present compilation is about interspecies transmission of Influenza A viruses.

Keywords: H: Haemagglutinin; India; Influenza A Virus; N: Neuraminidase; Zoonoses

×

References

  1. Klenk H., et al. “Avian Influenza: Molecular Mechanisms of Pathogenesis and Host Range". Animal Viruses: Molecular Biology. Academic Press. (2008): 978-1-904455-22-6.
  2. Kim Se Mi., et al. “Seminars in Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine”. 37 (2016): No. 4/2016.
  3. Hay AJ., et al. “The evolution of human influenza viruses. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London". Series B, Biological Sciences 356.1416 (2001): 1861-1870.
  4. Webster RG., et al. “Evolution and ecology of influenza A viruses". Microbiology Review 56.1 (1992): 152-179. 
  5. Chen R and Holmes E C. "Avian influenza virus exhibits rapid evolutionary dynamics". Molecular Biology and Evolution 23 (2006): 2336-2341.
  6. Tong S., et al. “A distinct lineage of influenza A virus from bats". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 109.11 (2012): 4269-4274. 
  7. Tong S., et al. “New World Bats Harbor Diverse Influenza A Viruses". PLOS Pathogens 9.10 (2013): e1003657.
  8. Lycett S J., et al. “A brief history of bird flu". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B (2019): 374-20180257. 
  9. Li W., et al. “Bats are natural reservoirs of SARS-like coronaviruses". Science 310 (2005): 676-679. 
  10. Tong S., et al. “Detection of novel SARS-like and other coronaviruses in bats from Kenya". Emerging Infectious Diseases 15 (2009): 482-485. 
  11. Turmelle A S and Olival K J. "Correlates of viral richness in bats (order Chiroptera)". Ecohealth 6 (2009): 522-539. 
  12. Uyeki TM and Peiris M. "Novel Avian Influenza A Virus Infections of Humans". Infectious Disease Clinics of North America 33 (2019): 907-932.
  13. Swayne D E., et al. “Acute renal failure as the cause of death in chickens following intravenous inoculation with avian influenza virus A/chicken/Alabama/7395/75 (H4N8)". Avian Disease 38.1 (1994): 151-157.
  14. Yuen K Y., et al. “Clinical features and rapid viral diagnosis of human disease associated with avian influenza A H5N1 virus". Lancet 351 (1998): 467-471.
  15. Shi W., et al. "Origin and molecular characterization of the human-infecting H6N1 influenza virus in Taiwan". Protein Cell 4 (2013): 846-853.
  16. Parry J. "H7N9 avian flu infects humans for the first time". British Medical Journal 346 (2013): f2151.
  17. Fouchier R A M., et al. “Avian influenza A virus (H7N7) associated with human conjunctivitis and a fatal case of acute respiratory distress syndrome". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 101 (2004): 1356-1361.
  18. Bui C M., et al. “An overview of the epidemiology and emergence of influenza A infection in humans over time". Archives of Public Health 75 (2017): 15.
  19. Chen H., et al. “Clinical and epidemiological characteristics of a fatal case of avian influenza A H10N8 virus infection: a descriptive study". Lancet 383 (2014): 714-721.
  20. Shinya K., et al. “Avian flu: influenza virus receptors in the human airway". Nature 440.7083 (2006): 435-436.
  21. Worobey M., et al. "A synchronized global sweep of the internal genes of modern avian influenza virus". Nature 508 (2014): 254-257.
  22. Schafer J R., et al. “Origin of the pandemic 1957 H2 influenza A virus and the persistence of its possible progenitors in the avian reservoir". Virology 194 (1993): 781-788.
  23. Kawaoka Y., et al. “Avian-to-human transmission of the PB1 gene of influenza A viruses in the 1957 and 1968 pandemics". Journal of Virology 63 (1989): 4603-4608.
  24. Joseph U., et al. “Adaptation of pandemic H2N2 influenza A viruses in humans". Journal of Virology 89 (2015): 2442-2447.
  25. Bean W J., et al. “Evolution of the H3 influenza virus hemagglutinin from human and nonhuman hosts". Journal of Virology 66 (1992): 1129-1138.
  26. Smith G J D., et al. “Origins and evolutionary genomics of the 2009 swine-origin H1N1 influenza A epidemic". Nature 459 (2009): 1122-1125.
  27. Bhatt S., et al. “The evolutionary dynamics of influenza A virus adaptation to mammalian hosts". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 368 (2013): 20120382.
  28. Stieneke-Gröber A., et al. “Influenza virus hemagglutinin with multibasic cleavage site is activated by furin, a subtilisin-like endoprotease". EMBO Journal 11 (1992): 2407-2414. 
  29. Luczo J M., et al. “Molecular pathogenesis of H5 highly pathogenic avian influenza: the role of the haemagglutinin cleavage site motif". Reviews in Medical Virology 26 (2015): 406-430.
  30. Vasin A V., et al." Molecular mechanisms enhancing the proteome of influenza A viruses: an overview of recently discovered proteins". Virus Research 185 (2014): 53-63.
  31. Lo C Y., et al. "Structure and Function of Influenza Virus Ribonucleoprotein". Subcellular Biochemistry 88 (2018): 95-128.
  32. Paulson J C and de Vries R P. "H5N1 Receptor Specificity as a Factor in Pandemic Risk". Virus Research 178.1 (2013): 99-113.
  33. Hatta M., et al. “Molecular basis for high virulence of Hong Kong H5N1 influenza A viruses". Science 293.5536 (2001): 1840-1842.
  34. Tumpey T M., et al. "A two-amino acid change in the hemagglutinin of the 1918 influenza virus abolishes transmission". Science 315.5812 (2007): 655-659. 
  35. Matrosovich M., et al. “Gangliosides are not essential for influenza virus infection". Glycoconj Journal 23 (2006): 107-113.
  36. Rogers G N., et al. “Single amino acid substitutions in influenza haemagglutinin change receptor binding specificity". Nature 304.5921 (1983): 76-78. 
  37. Imai M., et al. “Experimental adaptation of an influenza H5 HA confers respiratory droplet transmission to a reassortant H5HA/H1N1virus in ferrets". Nature 486.7403 (2012): 420-428. 
  38. Imai M and Kawaoka Y. "The role of receptor binding specificity in interspecies transmission of influenza viruses". Current Opinion on Virology 2 (2012): 160-167.
  39. Chen W., et al. “The evolutionary pattern of glycosylation sites in influenza virus (H5N1) hemagglutinin and neuraminidase". PLoS ONE 7 (2012): e49224.
  40. Yen H L., et al. “Hemagglutinin-neuraminidase balance confers respiratory-droplet transmissibility of the pandemic H1N1 influenza virus in ferrets". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 108 (2011): 14264-14269.
  41. Steel J., et al. “Transmission of influenza virus in a mammalian host is increased by PB2 amino acids 627K or 627E/701N". PLOS Pathogens 5 (2009): e1000252. 
  42. Chen L M., et al. “Genetic compatibility and virulence of reassortants derived from contemporary avian H5N1 and human H3N2 influenza A viruses". PLOS Pathogens 4 (2008): e1000072. 
  43. Ito T., et al. “Molecular basis for the generation in pigs of influenza A viruses with pandemic potential". Journal of Virology 72 (1998): 7367-7373. 
  44. Medina R A and García-Sastre A. "Influenza A viruses: new research developments". Nature Reviews Microbiology 9 (2011): 590-603. 
  45. Shinya K., et al. “Avian flu: influenza virus receptors in the human airway". Nature 440.7083 (2006): 435-436. 
  46. Garten W and Klenk H. “Cleavage activation of the influenza virus hemagglutinin and its role in pathogenesis”. In: Klenk HD, Matrosovich MN, Stech J, eds. Avian Influenza. Basel: Karger 27 (2008): 156-167.
  47. Chan P K. "Outbreak of avian influenza A (H5N1) virus infection in Hong Kong in 1997". Clinical Infectious Diseases 34 (2002): S58-64.
  48. Claes F., et al. “Emergence and dissemination of clade 2.3.4.4 H5Nx influenza viruses-how is the Asian HPAI H5 lineage maintained". Current Opinion on Virology 16 (2016): 158-163.
  49. Koopmans M., et al. “Transmission of H7N7 avian influenza A virus to human beings during a large outbreak in commercial poultry farms in the Netherlands". Lancet 363.9409 (2004): 587-593.
  50. Gao R., et al. "Human infection with a novel avian-origin influenza A (H7N9) virus". The New England Journal of Medicine 368.20 (2013): 1888-1897.
  51. Wang X., et al. “Epidemiology of avian influenza A H7N9 virus in human beings across five epidemics in mainland China, 2013-17: an epidemiological study of laboratory-confirmed case series". Lancet Infectious Diseases 17.8 (2017): 822-32.
  52. Belser J A., et al. “The eyes have it: influenza virus infection beyond the respiratory tract”. Lancet Infectious Diseases 18.7 (2018): e220-227.
  53. Guan Y., et al. “Molecular characterization of H9N2 influenza viruses: were they the donors of the “internal” genes of H5N1 viruses in Hong Kong?” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 96 (1999): 9363-9367.
  54. Peiris M., et al. “Human infection with influenza H9N2". Lancet 354.9182 (1999): 916-917. 
  55. Kurtz J., et al. “Avian influenza virus isolated from a woman with conjunctivitis". Lancet 348.9031 (1996): 901-902. 
  56. Zhang Q., et al. “H7N9 influenza viruses are transmissible in ferrets by respiratory droplet". Science 341.6144 (2013): 410-414.
  57. Watanabe T., et al. “Characterization of H7N9 influenza A viruses isolated from humans". Nature 501.7468 (2013): 551-555.
  58. Liu D., et al. “Origin and diversity of novel avian influenza A H7N9 viruses causing human infection: phylogenetic, structural, and coalescent analyses". Lancet 381.9881 (2013): 1926-1932.
  59. Yuan J., et al. “Origin and molecular characteristics of a novel 2013 avian influenza A (H6N1) virus causing human infection in Taiwan". Clinical Infectious Diseases 57.9 (2013): 1367-1368. 
  60. Arzey G G., et al. “Influenza virus A (H10N7) in chickens and poultry abattoir workers, Australia". Emerging Infectious Diseases 18 (2012): 814-816.
  61. Castrucci M R., et al. “Genetic reassortment between avian and human influenza Aviruses in Italian pigs". Virology 193 (1993): 503-506.
  62. Ma W., et al. “The pig as a mixing vessel for influenza viruses: Human and veterinary implications". Molecular Genetics and Genomic Medicine 3 (2008): 158-166.
  63. Stephenson I., et al. “Confronting the avian influenza threat: vaccine development for a potential pandemic". Lancet Infection Disease 4 (2004): 499-509. 
  64. Lewis D B. "Avian Flu to Human Influenza". Annual Review of Medicine 57 (2006): 139-154.
  65. Matrosovich M N., et al. “Neuraminidase is important for the initiation of influenza virus infection in human airway epithelium". Journal of Virology 78 (2004): 12665-12667. 
  66. Seo S H., et al. “Lethal H5N1 influenza viruses escape host anti-viral cytokine responses". Nature Medicine 8.9 (2002): 950-954. 
  67. Hilleman M R. "Realities and enigmas of human viral influenza: pathogenesis, epidemiology and control". Vaccine 20 (2002): 3068-3087.
  68. Subbarao E K., et al. “A single amino acid in the PB2 gene of influenza A virus is a determinant of host range". Journal of Virology 67.4 (1993): 1761-1764. 
  69. Conenello G M., et al. “A single mutation in the PB1-F2 of H5N1 (HK/97) and 1918 influenza A viruses contributes to increased virulence". PLOS Pathogens 3 (2007): 1414-1421.
  70. Zamarin D., et al. “Influenza virus PB1-F2 protein induces cell death through mitochondrial ANT3 and VDAC1". PLOS Pathogens 1 (2005): 4. 
  71. Zamarin D., et al. "Influenza A virus PB1-F2 protein contributes to viral pathogenesis in mice". Journal of Virology 80 (2006): 7976-7983. 
  72. Chen W., et al. “A novel influenza A virus mitochondrial protein that induces cell death". Nature Medicine 7 (2001): 1306-1312.
  73. McAuley J L., et al. “PB1-F2 proteins from H5N1 and 20 century pandemic influenza viruses cause immunopathology". PLOS Pathogens 6 (2010): 1001014.
  74. Varga T Z and Palese P. "The influenza A virus protein PB1-F2". Virulence 2.6 (2011): 542-546.
  75. Wang R., et al. "Influenza A Virus Protein PB1-F2 Impairs Innate Immunity by Inducing Mitophagy". Autophagy 11 (2020): 1-16.
  76. Liu X., et al. "Evidence for a Novel Mechanism of Influenza A Virus Host Adaptation Modulated by PB2-627". FEBS Journal 286.17 (2019): 3389-3400.
  77. Long J S., et al. "The Effect of the PB2 Mutation 627K on Highly Pathogenic H5N1 Avian Influenza Virus Is Dependent on the Virus Lineage". Journal of Virology 87.18 (2013): 9983-9996.
  78. Ma C., et al. “Emergence and evolution of H10 subtype influenza viruses in poultry in China". Journal of Virology 89 (2015): 3534-3541.
  79. Zhao K., et al. “Characterization of three H5N5 and one H5N8 highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses in China". Veterinary Microbiology 163 (2013): 351-357.
  80. Qi X., et al. “Whole-genome sequence of a reassortant H5N6 avian influenza virus isolated from a live poultry market in China, 2013". Genome Announcement 2.5 (2014): 706-714.
  81. Lam T T Y., et al. “Dissemination, divergence and establishment of H7N9 influenza viruses in China". Nature 522.7554 (2015): 102-105.
×

Citation

Citation: Sharanagouda Patil., et al. “Influenza A Virus: Multi Species Host and Zoonoses". Acta Scientific Microbiology 3.9 (2020): 37-46.




Metrics

Acceptance rate30%
Acceptance to publication20-30 days

Indexed In






News and Events


  • Certification for Review
    Acta Scientific certifies the Editors/reviewers for their review done towards the assigned articles of the respective journals.
  • Submission Timeline for Upcoming Issue
    The last date for submission of articles for regular Issues is December 25, 2024.
  • Publication Certificate
    Authors will be issued a "Publication Certificate" as a mark of appreciation for publishing their work.
  • Best Article of the Issue
    The Editors will elect one Best Article after each issue release. The authors of this article will be provided with a certificate of "Best Article of the Issue"

Contact US